犹太大屠杀 登录/注册 下载豆瓣客户端 豆瓣 6.0 全新发布 × 豆瓣 扫码直接下载 iPhone · Android 豆瓣 读书 电影 音乐 同城 小组 阅读 FM 时间 豆品 豆瓣小组 精选 文化 行摄 时尚 生活 科技 搜索： 犹太大屠杀 来自: lama 组长 2008-06-18 14:48:08 犹太人大屠杀 犹太人大屠杀是纳粹德国在第二次世界大战中的民族清洗，也是二战中最多人熟悉的暴行之一，在这次大屠杀中，近600万犹太人被屠杀。犹太人大屠杀在英语和德语的名称为「Holocaust」，此字是来自希腊语，意思是用火牺牲。犹太人则称其为“Shoah”, 来自希伯来语，带「浩劫」的意思。 背景 自1933年起，德国纳粹党开始了独裁执政，纳粹党开始一个大规模的反犹太活动。在同一年，纳粹德国政府撤销所有犹太裔公务员的职位。 在1935年通过的《纽伦堡法案》将「犹太人」作出定义。根据纽伦堡法案，凡有一个犹太裔祖父母以上的德国人都会被视为「犹太人」。纽伦堡法案还剥夺犹太人的德国国民权利。 其他法案将一个犹太人与一个非犹太人有性关系非法化。到1938年，纳粹德国已经禁止犹太人进入大多数专业。在1938年11月9日，纳粹党策划一个反犹太集会，称为「水晶之夜」。在这个集会中，有很多犹太人的商店和犹太会堂被破坏。 德国在1939年9月1日入侵波兰而在欧洲爆发第二次世界大战以后，不单止纳粹党的反犹太政策极端化，而且这些政策亦伸展到德国佔领的地方。 [编辑] 大屠杀（纳粹屠犹） 德国在1939年9月尾并吞了波兰以后，纳粹德国将它们国内和奥地利的犹太人集中在波兰的内陆，称为「普通政府」的地区。犹太人现在被放置在「强制性犹太人居住区」之内。最大规模的「强制性犹太人居住区」是位于华沙。在华沙的犹太人被迫在1940年11月15日前搬迁到被指定为犹太人的地区和将这个地区密封。继低地国家，法国，波罗的海国家和南斯拉夫受到纳粹德国的佔领，更多犹太人处在纳粹德国的控制范围内。 由1941年6月22日，德国偷袭苏联开始以后，德国盖世太保跟随德军，对住在苏联乡区的犹太人作出大规模的大屠杀。盖世太保最初的杀人方法是用手枪射杀，然后把他们的尸体埋葬在万人坑里面。但是柏林想出了更有「人道」的杀人方法来减低秘密警察的压力。这个方法是用毒气杀人。初时秘密警察只用汽车的废气来杀犹太人。但是在1942年起德国采用了氰化氢(Hydrogen Cyanide Gas)来有效地杀死最多犹太人。 在1941年12月，德国在波兰兴建6个杀人的集中营。当中的地点包括奥斯威辛和特雷布林卡。这些地点被选择的原因是因为它们都是铁路的交汇点，以及它们都不是军事上重要的地点。所以，纳粹党可以秘密地进行这个杀人计划。 1942年1月20日的万湖会议，落实「犹太人问题的最后解决方法」以后，纳粹德国开始用这些集中营来杀犹太人。用货车车厢，犹太人被运到这6个杀人的集中营。在奥斯威辛集中营，被运到的犹太人会经过一个挑选过程。可以做苦工的男性会被送到苦工营，而其他的会被送到毒气室。被送死的犹太人以为他们是被送到浴室，但是入到浴室的时候，他们才知道「浴室的莲蓬头只会放出毒气」（此为一般人或电影的错误认知，德国人是将一种被称为Zyklon B的氰化氢金属桶从管道掷入毒气室中，桶中的氰化氢在室温中即挥发为毒气）。其他的集中营只有杀人的任务而没有苦工营的。 在1944年，当德国知道它们的气势已尽的时候，它们加快集中营杀人的速度。当中包括被德军佔领的匈牙利。 当盟军在1945年初解放波兰时，它们发现到这些杀人的集中营。整个二战中，大约580万欧裔犹太人被纳粹德国杀死,是欧洲犹太人人口的三份之二。纳粹德国也有系统的杀死欧洲的吉普赛人、同性恋者、欧洲东线的敌军和其他异见人士，当中只有犹太人及吉普赛人只因种族原因被屠杀。 二战时华沙犹太人的经历被拍成许多电影，如《美丽人生》、《辛德勒的名单》、《战地琴人》等，其中以《辛德勒的名单》艺术成就最高。 The Holocaust The Holocaust (from the Greek ὁλόκαυστον (holókauston): holos, "completely" and kaustos, "burnt"), also known as Ha-Shoah (Hebrew: השואה), Churben (Yiddish: חורבן), is the term generally used to describe the genocide of approximately six million European Jews during World War II, as part of a program of deliberate extermination planned and executed by the National Socialist German Workers’ Party (Nazi) regime in Germany led by Adolf Hitler.[2] Other groups were persecuted and killed by the regime, including the Roma; Soviets, particularly prisoners of war; Communists; ethnic Poles; other Slavic people; the disabled; gay men; and political and religious dissidents.[3][4] Many scholars do not include these groups in the definition of the Holocaust, defining it as the genocide of the Jews,[5] or what the Nazis called the "Final Solution of the Jewish Question." Taking into account all the victims of Nazi persecution, the death toll rises considerably: estimates generally place the total number of victims at nine to 11 million.[6] The persecution and genocide were accomplished in stages. Legislation to remove the Jews from civil society was enacted years before the outbreak of World War II. Concentration camps were established in which inmates were used as slave labour until they died of exhaustion or disease. Where the Third Reich conquered new territory in eastern Europe, specialized units called Einsatzgruppen murdered Jews and political opponents in mass shootings. Jews and Roma were crammed into ghettos before being transported hundreds of miles by freight train to extermination camps where, if they survived the journey, the majority of them were killed in gas chambers. Every arm of Germany's bureaucracy was involved in the logistics of the mass murder, turning the country into what one Holocaust scholar has called "a genocidal state."[7] Erntefest Final Solution: Wannsee · Operation Reinhard · Holocaust trains Main article: Names of the Holocaust The term holocaust originally derived from the Greek word holókauston, meaning a "completely (holos) burnt (kaustos)" sacrificial offering to a god. Its Latin form (holocaustum) was first used with specific reference to a massacre of Jews by the chroniclers Roger of Howden[8] and Richard of Devizes in the 1190s. Since the late 19th century, it has been used primarily to refer to disasters or catastrophes. The biblical word Shoah (שואה) (also spelled Sho'ah and Shoa), meaning "calamity," became the standard Hebrew term for the Holocaust as early as the 1940s.[9] Shoah is preferred by many Jews for a number of reasons, including the theologically offensive nature of the original meaning of "holocaust."[10] Definition The word "holocaust" has been used since the 18th century to refer to the violent deaths of a large number of people.[11] For example, Winston Churchill and other contemporaneous writers used it before World War II to describe the Armenian Genocide of World War I. [12] Since the 1950s its use has been increasingly restricted, and it is now mainly used to describe the Nazi Holocaust, spelled with a capital H. "Holocaust" was adopted as a translation of "Shoah" — a Hebrew word connoting catastrophe, calamity, disaster and destruction [13] — which was used in 1940 in Jerusalem in a booklet called Sho'at Yehudei Polin, and translated as The Holocaust of the Jews of Poland. "Shoah" had earlier been used in the context of the Nazis as a translation of "catastrophe"; for example, in 1934, Chaim Weizmann told the Zionist Action Committee that Hitler's rise to power was an "unvorhergesehene Katastropha, etwa ein neur Weltkrieg" ("an unforeseen catastrophe, perhaps even a new world war"); the Hebrew press translated "Katastropha" as "Shoah."[14] In the spring of 1942, the Jerusalem historian BenZion Dinur (Dinaburg) used "Shoah" in a book published by the United Aid Committee for the Jews in Poland to describe the extermination of Europe's Jews, calling it a "catastrophe" that symbolized the unique situation of the Jewish people.[13][15] The word "Shoah" was chosen in Israel to describe the Holocaust, the term institutionalized by the Knesset on April 12, 1951, when it established Yom Ha-Shoah Ve Mered Ha-Getaot, the national day of remembrance. By the 1950s, its translation, "Holocaust," popularized by Yad Vashem, had come routinely to refer to the genocide of the European Jews.[9][14] The usual German term for the extermination of the Jews during the Nazi period was the euphemistic phrase Endlösung der Judenfrage (the "Final Solution of the Jewish Question"). In both English and German, "Final Solution" is widely used as an alternative to "Holocaust".[16] For a time after World War II, German historians also used the term Völkermord ("genocide"), or in full, der Völkermord an den Juden ("the genocide of the Jewish people"), while the prevalent term in Germany today is either Holocaust or increasingly Shoah. The word "holocaust" is also used in a wider sense to describe other actions of the Nazi regime. These include the killing of around half a million Roma and Sinti, the deaths of several million Soviet prisoners of war, along with slave laborers, gay men, Jehovah's Witnesses, the disabled, and political opponents. The use of the word in this wider sense is objected to by many Jewish organizations, particularly those established to commemorate the Jewish Holocaust. Jewish organizations say that the word in its current sense was originally coined to describe the extermination of the Jews, and that the Jewish Holocaust was a crime on such a scale, and of such specificity, as the culmination of the long history of European antisemitism, that it should not be subsumed into a general category with the other crimes of the Nazis. Even more hotly disputed is the extension of the word to describe events that have no connection with World War II. The terms "Rwandan Holocaust" and "Cambodian Holocaust" are used to refer to the Rwanda genocide of 1994 and the mass killings by the Khmer Rouge regime in Cambodia respectively, and "African Holocaust" is used to describe the slave trade and the colonization of Africa, also known as the Maafa. Distinctive features Compliance of Germany's institutions Ghettos were established in Europe in which Jews were confined before being shipped to extermination camps. The Nazis methodically tracked the progress of the Holocaust in thousands of reports and documents. Pictured is the Höfle Telegram sent to Adolf Eichmann in January, 1943, that reported that 1,274,166 Jews had been killed in the four Aktion Reinhard camps during 1942. Michael Berenbaum writes that Germany became a "genocidal state."[7] Every arm of the country's sophisticated bureaucracy was involved in the killing process. Parish churches and the Interior Ministry supplied birth records showing who was Jewish; the Post Office delivered the deportation and denaturalization orders; the Finance Ministry confiscated Jewish property; German firms fired Jewish workers and disenfranchised Jewish stockholders; the universities refused to admit Jews, denied degrees to those already studying, and fired Jewish academics; government transport offices arranged the trains for deportation to the camps; German pharmaceutical companies tested drugs on camp prisoners; companies bid for the contracts to build the ovens; detailed lists of victims were drawn up using the Dehomag company's punch card machines, producing meticulous records of the killings. As prisoners entered the death camps, they were made to surrender all personal property, which was carefully catalogued and tagged before being sent to Germany to be reused or recycled. Berenbaum writes that the Final Solution of the Jewish question was "in the eyes of the perpetrators … Germany's greatest achievement."[17] Saul Friedländer writes that: "Not one social group, not one religious community, not one scholarly institution or professional association in Germany and throughout Europe declared its solidarity with the Jews."[18] He writes that some Christian churches declared that converted Jews should be regarded as part of the flock, but even then only up to a point. Friedländer argues that this makes the Holocaust distinctive because anti-Jewish policies were able to unfold without the interference of countervailing forces of the kind normally found in advanced societies, such as industry, small businesses, churches, and other vested interests and lobby groups.[18] The dominance of ideology and the scale of the genocide In other genocides, pragmatic considerations such as control of territory and resources were central to the genocide policy. Yehuda Bauer argues that: [T]he basic motivation [of the Holocaust] was purely ideological, rooted in an illusionary world of Nazi imagination, where an international Jewish conspiracy to control the world was opposed to a parallel Aryan quest. No genocide to date had been based so completely on myths, on hallucinations, on abstract, nonpragmatic ideology—which was then executed by very rational, pragmatic means."[19] The slaughter was systematically conducted in virtually all areas of Nazi-occupied territory in what are now 35 separate European countries.[20] It was at its worst in Central and Eastern Europe, which had more than seven million Jews in 1939. About five million Jews were killed there, including three million in occupied Poland, and over one million in the Soviet Union. Hundreds of thousands also died in the Netherlands, France, Belgium, Yugoslavia, and Greece. The Wannsee Protocol makes clear that the Nazis also intended to carry out their "final solution of the Jewish question" in England and Ireland.[21] Anyone with three or four Jewish grandparents was to be exterminated without exception. In other genocides, people were able to escape death by converting to another religion or in some other way assimilating. This option was not available to the Jews of occupied Europe.[22] All persons of recent Jewish ancestry were to be exterminated in lands controlled by Germany.[23] Medical experiments A cold water immersion experiment at Dachau concentration camp presided over by Professor Holzlohner (left) and Dr. Rascher (right). Further information: Nazi human experimentation Another distinctive feature was the extensive use of human subjects in medical experiments. German physicians carried out such experiments at Auschwitz, Dachau, Buchenwald, Ravensbrück, Sachsenhausen and Natzweiler concentration camps.[24] The most notorious of these physicians was Dr. Josef Mengele, who worked in Auschwitz. His experiments included placing subjects in pressure chambers, testing drugs on them, freezing them, attempting to change eye color by injecting chemicals into children's eyes, and various amputations and other brutal surgeries.[25] The full extent of his work will never be known because the truckload of records he sent to Dr. Otmar von Verschuer at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute were destroyed by von Verschuer.[26] Subjects who survived Mengele's experiments were almost always killed and dissected after the experiments. Romani children in Auschwitz, victims of medical experiments. He seemed particularly keen on working with Romani children. He would bring them sweets and toys, and would personally take them to the gas chamber. They would call him "Onkel Mengele."[27] Vera Alexander was a Jewish inmate at Auschwitz who looked after 50 sets of Romani twins: “ I remember one set of twins in particular: Guido and Ina, aged about four. One day, Mengele took them away. When they returned, they were in a terrible state: they had been sewn together, back to back, like Siamese twins. Their wounds were infected and oozing pus. They screamed day and night. Then their parents—I remember the mother's name was Stella—managed to get some morphine and they killed the children in order to end their suffering.[27] ” Victims and death toll Jews · Further information: The Destruction of the European Jews, The War Against the Jews Members of the Sonderkommando burn corpses in the firepits at Auschwitz II-Birkenau. Photographer Alberto Errera, August 1944. Courtesy of the Auschwitz-Birkenau museum, Poland. [28] Figures from Lucy Dawidowicz showing the annihilation of the Jewish population of Europe.[29] Since 1945, the most commonly cited figure for the total number of Jews killed has been six million. The Yad Vashem Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority in Jerusalem, writes that there is no precise figure for the number of Jews killed. The figure most commonly used is the six million cited by Adolf Eichmann, a senior SS official. Early calculations range from 5.1 million from Raul Hilberg, to 5.95 million from Jacob Leschinsky. Yisrael Gutman and Robert Rozett in the Encyclopedia of the Holocaust estimate 5.59–5.86 million.[30] A study led by Wolfgang Benz of the Technical University of Berlin suggests 5.29–6.2 million.[31][32]Yad Vashem writes that the main sources for these statistics are comparisons of prewar and postwar censuses and population estimates, and Nazi documentation on deportations and murders. Yad Vashem reports that it has the names of four million of the victims.[31] Hilberg estimate of 5.1 million, in the third edition of The Destruction of the European Jews, includes over 800,000 who died from "ghettoization and general privation"; 1,400,000 killed in open-air shootings; and up to 2,900,000 who perished in camps. Hilberg estimates the death toll of Jews in Poland as up to 3,000,000.[33] Hilberg's numbers are generally considered to be a conservative estimate, as they typically include only those deaths for which records are available, avoiding statistical adjustment.[34] British historian Martin Gilbert used a similar approach in his Atlas of the Holocaust, but arrived at a number of 5.75 million Jewish victims, since he estimated higher numbers of Jews killed in Russia and other locations.[35] Lucy S. Dawidowicz used pre-war census figures to estimate that 5.934 million Jews died (see her figures (left) here).[36] There were about 8 to 10 million Jews in the territories controlled directly or indirectly by the Nazis (the uncertainty arises from the lack of knowledge about how many Jews there were in the Soviet Union). The six million killed in the Holocaust thus represent 60 to 75 percent of these Jews. Of Poland's 3.3 million Jews, over 90 percent were killed. The same proportion were killed in Latvia and Lithuania, but most of Estonia's Jews were evacuated in time. Of the 750,000 Jews in Germany and Austria in 1933, only about a quarter survived. Although many German Jews emigrated before 1939, the majority of these fled to Czechoslovakia, France or the Netherlands, from where they were later deported to their deaths. In Czechoslovakia, Greece, the Netherlands, and Yugoslavia, over 70 percent were killed. More than 50 percent were killed in Belgium, Hungary, and Romania. It is likely that a similar proportion were killed in Belarus and Ukraine, but these figures are less certain. Countries with notably lower proportions of deaths include Bulgaria, Denmark, France, Italy, and Norway. Year Killed[37] 1933–1940 under 100,000 1941 1,100,000 1942 2,700,000 1943 500,000 1944 600,000 1945 100,000 The number of people killed at the major extermination camps is estimated as: Auschwitz-Birkenau: 1.4 million;[38] Treblinka: 870,000;[39] Belzec: 600,000;[40] Majdanek: 360,000;[41] Chelmno: 320,000;[42] Sobibór: 250,000;[43] and Maly Trostinets: 65,000.[44] This gives a total of over 3.8 million; of these, 80–90% were estimated to be Jews. These seven camps alone thus accounted for half the total number of Jews killed in the entire Nazi Holocaust. Virtually the entire Jewish population of Poland died in these camps. In addition to those who died in the above extermination camps, at least half a million Jews died in other camps, including the major concentration camps in Germany. These were not extermination camps, but had large numbers of Jewish prisoners at various times, particularly in the last year of the war as the Nazis withdrew from Poland. About a million people died in these camps, and although the proportion of Jews is not known with certainty, it was estimated to be at least 50 percent. Another 800,000 to one million Jews were killed by the Einsatzgruppen in the occupied Soviet territories (an approximate figure, since the Einsatzgruppen killings were frequently undocumented).[45] Many more died through execution or of disease and malnutrition in the ghettos of Poland before they could be deported. Slavs Main article: Generalplan Ost One of Hitler's ambitions at the start of the war was to exterminate, expel, or enslave most or all Slavs so as to make living space for German settlers. This plan of genocide[46] was to be carried into effect gradually over a period of 25-30 years.[47] Soviet POWs Soviet POWs in German captivity Non-Jewish victims Killed Source Soviet POWs 2–3 million [48] Ethnic Poles 1.8-2 million [49][50] Roma 220,000–500,000 [51] Disabled 200,000–250,000 [52] Freemasons 80,000–200,000 [53] Gay men 5,000–15,000 [54] Jehovah'sWitnesses 2,500–5,000 [55] Main article: Nazi crimes against Soviet POWs According to Michael Berenbaum, between two and three million Soviet prisoners-of-war—57 percent of all Soviet POWs—died of starvation, mistreatment, or executions between June 1941 and May 1945, most of them during their first year of captivity. According to other estimates by Daniel Goldhagen, an estimated 2.8 million Soviet POWs died in eight months in 1941–42, with a total of 3.5 million by mid-1944.[56] The USHMM has estimated that 3.3 million of the 5.7 million Soviet POWs died in German custody—compared to 8,300 of 231,000 British and American prisoners.[57] The death rates decreased as the POWs were needed to work as slaves to help the German war effort; by 1943, half a million of them had been deployed as slave labor.[48] Ethnic Poles Main articles: Nazi crimes against ethnic Poles, Occupation of Poland (1939–1945), and Pacification operations in German-occupied Poland Execution of Poles by Einsatzkommando — Leszno, October 1939 German planners in November 1939 called for nothing less than ‘the complete destruction’ of the Poli… truncated (61,337 more characters in archive)